@article {1749,
	title = {Cationic polyelectrolytes from leukocytes might kill bacteria by\&nbsp;activating their autolytic systems: Enigmatically, the relevance\&nbsp;of this phenomenon to post-infectious sequelae is disregarded},
	journal = {Intensive Care Medicine},
	volume = {28},
	number = {8},
	year = {2002},
	pages = {1188},
	abstract = {Linear polymers of lysine and arginine, phagocyte-derived lysozyme, PLA, elas- tase, cathepsin G, myeloperoxidases, nu- clear histone and bacterial/permeability-en- hancing peptide (BPI) and defensins all possess bactericidal activities [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. The highly cationic BPI and defensins might kill Gram-negatives primarily by de- polarizing their outer membrane to en- hance its permeability [3]. However, it had also been proposed that many of these polycations might also function as {\textquotedblleft}Trojan Horses{\textquotedblright} to disrupt the intracellular regula- tion of the autolytic wall enzyme systems (muramidases).This can lead to cleavage of the peptidoglycan, to bacteriolysis, and to cell death [4, 5, 6].The highly cationic, ly- sozyme, PLA2, and elastase probably do not function solely as enzymes, but rather as highly cationic agents. The bactericidal and bacteriolytic effects of polycations might therefore mimic the bacteriolytic ef- fects caused by beta-lactam antibiotics. Sulfated compounds (heparin, dextran sul- fate, polyaenthole sulfonate) very efficient-
CORRESPONDENCE
ly inhibited the activation of bacterial au- tolysis induced either by cationic agents or by beta-lactam antibiotics [4, 5, 6, 7]. Therefore, it is highly likely that polycat- ions of plasma and leukocyte origins might be actively involved in the pathophysiolo- gy of post-infectious sequelae by their ca- pacity to induce a massive release of high- ly phlogistic lipoteichoic acid [7] endotox- in, lipoprotein, and peptidoglycan [8].
Combinations among these agents might act on mononuclear cells to generate reactive oxygen species, NO, NOO-, hy- drolases, and also to activate the coagula- tion, complement, and cytokine cascades, all involved in septic shock. Based on the above arguments, it is tempting to specu- late that the failure to depress early bacteri- olysis in the bloodstream might be the main cause for the inability to cope with the multiple synergistic interactions lead- ing to post-infectious sequelae [9]. The clinical use of polyanions when combined with mutli drug strategies might therefore be recommended as potent anti-bacteriolyt- ic and anti-inflammatory agents [10]. It is enigmatic why publications that have pro- posed the role of polycations in bacterioly- sis and the possibility to inhibit its unto- ward effects by polyanions, findings so rel- evant to the patholysiology of post-infec- tious sequelae, are consistently disregarded [11] either in basic science publications on the bactericidal effects of polycations or in the clinical literature dealing with post-in- fectious sequelae.},
	author = {Isaac Ginsburg}
}
@article {1748,
	title = {Hemolysis of human erythrocytes by hypochlorous acid is modulated by amino acids, antioxidants, oxidants, membrane-perforating agents and by divalent metals},
	journal = {Free Radical Research},
	volume = {36},
	number = {6},
	year = {2002},
	pages = {607-619},
	abstract = {The optimal conditions under which hypochlorous acid (NaOCl) either hemolyzes human RBC or kills monkey kidney epithelial cells (BGM) in culture had been investigated. While in Hank{\textquoteright}s balanced salt solution (HBSS), micromolar amounts of NaOCl caused full hemolysis and also killed BGM cells, in D-MEM or RPMI media rich in amino acids, 25-40 mM of hypochlorite were needed to induce cell injury. Cells exposed to high amounts of NaOCl became highly refractory to strong detergents. Hemolysis by NaOCl was strongly inhibited by a large variety of antioxidants. RBC treated by subtoxic concentrations either of peroxide, peroxyl radical, NO, cholesterol, PLA2, PLC as well as by N2, argon or by mixture of CO2 (10\%) and O2 (90\%) became much more susceptible to lysis by NaOCl. On the other hand, while RBC treated by Fe2+, Co2+, and V2+ and to a lesser extent with Cu2+ became highly resistant to NaOCl hemolysis presumably due to NaOCl decomposition, no such effect was found either with Co2+ or by Mn2+. RBC treated by azide to destroy catalase and then incubated with peroxide and with NaOCl failed to undergo hemolysis due to the ability of peroxide to decompose NaOCl. The inhibitory effects of the divalent metals on NaOCl-induced hemolysis were also substantiated by measuring the decrease in pH and by cyclic voltammetry. The findings that like peroxide, NaOCl also synergizes with membrane-perforating agents and with a protease to kill epithelial cells further implicate such "cocktails" in cell injury in inflammatory conditions. Taken together, because of the capacity of many agents to scavenge NaOCl, tissue damage by NaOCl-generated neutrophils can take place primarily if activated neutrophils closely adhere to target cells to avoid the scavenging effects of amino acids and of antioxidants. Therefore, the significance of the data which had tested the cytotoxic effects of NaOCl using cells suspended only in salt solutions, should be reconsidered.},
	author = {Isaac Ginsburg and Milu Sadovnik and S. Yedgar and Ron Kohen and J. Hrbac}
}
@article {1678,
	title = {Role of lipoteichoic acid in infection and inflammation},
	journal = {The Lancet Infectious Diseases},
	volume = {2},
	number = {3},
	year = {2002},
	pages = {171-179},
	abstract = {Lipoteichoic acid (LTA) is a surface-associated adhesion amphiphile from Gram-positive bacteria and regulator of autolytic wall enzymes (muramidases). It is released from the bacterial cells mainly after bacteriolysis induced by lysozyme, cationic peptides from leucocytes, or beta-lactam antibiotics. It binds to target cells either non-specifically, to membrane phospholipids, or specifically, to CD14 and to Toll-like receptors. LTA bound to targets can interact with circulating antibodies and activate the complement cascade to induce a passive immune kill phenomenon. It also triggers the release from neutrophils and macrophages of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, acid hydrolases, highly cationic proteinases, bactericidal cationic peptides, growth factors, and cytotoxic cytokines, which may act in synergy to amplify cell damage. Thus, LTA shares with endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide) many of its pathogenetic properties. In animal studies, LTA has induced arthritis, nephritis, uveitis, encephalomyelitis, meningeal inflammation, and periodontal lesions, and also triggered cascades resulting in septic shock and multiorgan failure. Binding of LTA to targets can be inhibited by antibodies, phospholipids, and specific antibodies to CD14 and Toll, and in vitro its release can be inhibited by non-bacteriolytic antibiotics and by polysulphates such as heparin, which probably interfere with the activation of autolysis. From all this evidence, LTA can be considered a virulence factor that has an important role in infections and in postinfectious sequelae caused by Gram-positive bacteria. The future development of effective antibacteriolitic drugs and multidrug strategies to attenuate LTA-induced secretion of proinflammatory agonists is of great importance to combat septic shock and multiorgan failure caused by Gram-positive bacteria.
},
	author = {Isaac Ginsburg}
}
@article {1588,
	title = {The role of bacteriolysis in the pathophysiology of inflammation, infection and post-infectious sequelae},
	journal = {APMIS},
	volume = {110},
	number = {11},
	year = {2002},
	pages = {753-770},
	abstract = {The literature dealing with the biochemical basis of bacteriolysis and its role in inflammation, infection and in post-infectious sequelae is reviewed and discussed. Bacteriolysis is an event that may occur when normal microbial multiplication is altered due to an uncontrolled activation of a series of autolytic cell-wall breaking enzymes (muramidases). While a low-level bacteriolysis sometimes occurs physiologically, due to "mistakes" in cell separation, a pronounced cell wall breakdown may occur following bacteriolysis induced either by beta-lactam antibiotics or by a large variety of bacteriolysis-inducing cationic peptides. These include spermine, spermidine, bactericidal peptides defensins, bacterial permeability increasing peptides from neutrophils, cationic proteins from eosinophils, lysozyme, myeloperoxidase, lactoferrin, the highly cationic proteinases elastase and cathepsins, PLA2, and certain synthetic polyamino acids. The cationic agents probably function by deregulating lipoteichoic acid (LTA) in Gram-positive bacteria and phospholipids in Gram-negative bacteria, the presumed regulators of the autolytic enzyme systems (muramidases). When bacteriolysis occurs in vivo, cell-wall- and -membrane-associated lipopolysaccharide (LPS (endotoxin)), lipoteichoic acid (LTA) and peptidoglycan (PPG), are released. These highly phlogistic agents can act on macrophages, either individually or in synergy, to induce the generation and release of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, cytotoxic cytokines, hydrolases, proteinases, and also to activate the coagulation and complement cascades. All these agents and processes are involved in the pathophysiology of septic shock and multiple organ failure resulting from severe microbial infections. Bacteriolysis induced in in vitro models, either by polycations or by beta-lactams, could be effectively inhibited by sulfated polysaccharides, by D-amino acids as well as by certain anti-bacteriolytic antibiotics. However, within phagocytic cells in inflammatory sites, bacteriolysis tends to be strongly inhibited presumably due to the inactivation by oxidants and proteinases of the bacterial muramidases. This might results in a long persistence of non-biodegradable cell-wall components causing granulomatous inflammation. However, persistence of microbial cell walls in vivo may also boost innate immunity against infections and against tumor-cell proliferation. Therapeutic strategies to cope with the deleterious effects of bacteriolysis in vivo include combinations of autolysin inhibitors with combinations of certain anti-inflammatory agents. These might inhibit the synergistic tissue- and- organ-damaging "cross talks" which lead to septic shock and to additional post-infectious sequelae.},
	author = {Isaac Ginsburg}
}
